2.1
Introduction
The chapter will begin with
discussion on prominent learning styles models used variedly in education
followed by a discussion regarding the theoretical framework that will be used
for the proposed study. Next, it will review past research which uses several
types of learning styles models in determining most preferred learning styles
by ESL learners. After that, the chapter continues to reveal the factors
influencing language learning styles and followed by the benefits of
recognising the language preferences.
2.2
Prominent learning styles models
Individual learning styles and its
effect on individual academic performances and motivation has been a discussion
among academicians for a long time. Since then, there are a lot of theories and
models sought by those experts in finding out the true effect of learning
styles towards learners. In academic field, learning style model adopted by
learners have different impact on their performance. However, it is all based
on the learners to adapt whichever model that suits their needs best. Their
learning preferences may be influenced by external factors such as
physiological factors such as gender, health, past experiences, cultures and
environmental conditions. These factors will determine an individual best way
of learning and often dominates other learning styles. Some of the most famous
learning styles that are widely used are models which are developed by Kolb
(1984), Dunn and Dunn (1978), Felder-Silverman (1988), VARK Model (2006) and
Reid (1995).
2.2.1
Kolb Experiential Learning Theory
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
was first developed in 1984 and consists of two stages: a four level sequence
of learning and four separate learning preferences, McLeod (2013). Four level sequence of learning is
learning circle which involves (1) concrete experience followed by (2)
reflection on the experience which leads to (3) abstract conceptualisation and
followed by (4) active experimentation regarding new information received.
Figure
1: Kolb’s Experiential Theory and Lewinian Experiential Learning Theory
- Concrete experience-
Learners will obtain new experience.
- Reflective observation-
Learners will reflect on the experience to find inconsistencies between
obtained experience and received knowledge.
- Abstract conceptualisation-Learners
come out with reflection on the obtained experience if modification is
needed to further understand the concept.
- Active experimentation-Learners
will practice obtained knowledge to real world to see the results.
The cycle is a continuous cycle
where learners will repeat the same step in order to acquire new information
which starts with experience followed by reflection which leads to
conceptualise and testing out the information in real world.
Figure
2: Kolb’s Learning Cycle
Data
source: Simplypsychology.org
It is also from the above cycle;
Kolb locates four separate learning styles which are diverging, assimilating,
converging and accommodating. He added that different people requires different
learning style which influenced by other factors such as environment, level of
education, cultures and cognitive structure of an individual. With the
influence of other factors, Kolb presented a different continuum consists of
east-west axis (Processing Continuum-how
a learner approaches a task) and
north-south axis (Perception Continuum-how
a learner feels and think about the task).
Figure
3: Kolb’s Learning Continuum
2.2.2
Dunn and Dunn’s Learning Style Model
Dunn and Dunn’s Learning Style
Model was developed by a pair of academicians, Dr. Rita Dunn and Dr. Kenneth
Dunn in 1978 and was considered as the most used learning style model in the
history of North America, (Icels-educators-for-learning. Ca, 2015). The model
was designed based on every learner learns in different ways and influenced by
many factors and these learning styles can be identified based on 21 elements
which were categorized into five types of stimuli groups as indicated in the
table below. A special survey that is “Productivity
Environmental Preference Survey” (PEPS) was developed based on Dunn and
Dunn Learning-Style Model to identify individual learning style.
STIMULI
|
ELEMENTS
|
Environment
|
Sound, light,
temperature and seating design
|
Emotional
|
Motivational support,
persistence, individual responsibility and structure
|
Sociology
|
Individuals, pair, peers, group, adult and varied
|
Physiology
|
Perceptual (visual,
auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile), intake, time and mobility
|
Psychology
|
Analytic, global,
impulsive and reflective
|
2.2.3
Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model
The model was developed by Felder
and Silverman in 1988 and was published as an article entitled “Learning and
Teaching Styles in Engineering Education” to express views about learning based
on Felder’s experience in engineering education and Silverman’s expertise in
educational psychology (Moore, 2015). In the model, there are four learning
dimensions and five questions that may define an individual learning style
(Watson, 2003). Four learning dimensions are:
Sensing
and Intuitive Perception-how learners perceive
new information and use the information in their life (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts and procedures, conceptual,
innovative, oriented towards theories and meanings)
Visual and Verbal Input-learners learn at their best when given visual aids or
verbal materials. (pictures, diagrams or charts, spoken explanations)
Active and reflective processing-active learners learn when they are doing activities while
reflective learners think thoroughly before participate in an activity. (group
and independent learners)
Sequential and Global understanding- sequential learners are able to learn using small connected
chunks while global learners learn better once they understand the big picture
of it. (linear, orderly, small steps, system thinkers, large leaps thinkers).
Five questions
that will define an individual learning style:
- What type of knowledge does the learner preferentially
recognize: sensory-sights,
sounds, physical sensations, or intuitively-possibilities,
insights, hunches?
- Through which sensory medium is external information
most efficiently perceived: visual-pictures,
diagrams, graphs, demonstrations, or auditory-through
words or sounds?
- With which sequence of information is the learner most
comfortable: inductive-facts and
observation are given, underlying principles are inferred, or deductive-principles are given,
consequences and applications are deduced?
- How does the leaner wish to process information: actively-through engagement in
physical movement or conversation or reflectively-through
introspection?
- How does the learner advances toward understanding: sequentially-in a logical
progression of small incremental steps, or globally-in large jumps, holistically?
2.2.4
The VARK Model
According to The Future of Human Evolution
(2013), VARK Learning Style Model was developed by Fleming and almost similar
to Reid Perceptual Learning Style. VARK is an acronym which stands for Visual,
Aural, Read/Write and Kinaesthetic learning which ways an individual chooses to
absorb new information. Further explanation for each of the learning style as
follows:
Visual
- Learners prefer to learn using visual
aids such as graphs, diagrams, charts and pictures. These visual preferences
are called graphics aids or teaching aids.
Aural
– Learners learn best if they are in
lectures, discussions or seminars. They have extreme preference for information
that is heard or spoken.
Read/Write
– These learners have more preferences
towards information that is displayed as words rather than seeing or heard.
They prefer information from textbooks, hand-written, manuals and printed
handouts.
Kinaesthetic
– Learners love to get involved in total
physical movement in getting new knowledge such as role-play, field trips,
laboratory experiments and activities where they can use their senses. They
prefer to learn via practices and experience of their own.
Above explained learning styles has
indeed provided better insights on learners’ learning style and its relation
towards students’ adaptation for each learning style as opposed to each task
they have to achieve. As for the proposed study, the researcher will be using
Perceptual Learning Styles by Reid (1984:1995) as the theoretical framework in
investigating ESL learners in Malaysian context.
2.3
Theoretical Framework
Perceptual Learning Style
Preference Model was founded by Reid in 1987 where correlates with a research
conducted on United States of America (USA) school children (Dunn, 1983, 1984;
Reinert, 1976). Joy Reid conducted a study in finding out the learning styles
preferences of ESL students on 1,388 students which representing 98 countries
all across the globe using Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
(PLSPQ) to measure six learning styles. They are visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic, tactile, group and individual learning.
From the study, it has been found
that learners have four basic perceptual learning channels: visual learning, auditory learning, tactile
learning and kinaesthetic learning.
Among these four channels, there will be one most dominant style and it will
define the best way for the learner to retain new information by filtering what
is to be learnt and because of this, the dominant style may not be same for
every task especially when certain tasks require different set of skills.
Visual
learning is the condition where the learning process is able to give more
information to learners using visual simulation such as the use of pictures,
diagrams and watching a demonstration. These learners are able to understand
new information by reading and seeing words without hearing a detailed
explanation from teachers. Apart from that, visual learners are also visual
literacy where they can interpret visual messages accurately and understand
better with the use of images.
On the other hand, auditory learning is the condition
where learners grasp new information more effectively when the information is
heard or spoken out. These type or learners will be able to learn at their best
when they are in lectures, group discussions, web-chat and speaking session.
Oral expression is their main source of learning hence, they will do best to
remember things if they read the information out loud or by least moving their
lips when they read.
Tactile
learners are those who learn at best when they are given “hands-on” experience with new materials. Examples of “hands-on” activities are laboratory
experiments, building models and touching and writing new information. The act
of doing is considered as an act of emphasize or repetition of their new
acquired knowledge and by doing it, it gives the brain the best learning
situations for them. The act of writing notes or lessons is a simulation
requires by the brain to keep the information for long-term period.
While tactile learners learn using
“hands-on” movement, kinaesthetic
learners learn better if they are involved physically in the learning process.
Physically involved means learners want to be fully involved in stimulating
activities such as participate in classrooms’ activities, join field-trips or
by participate in role-playing session in classrooms. The combination of
stimuli of moving and speaking at the same time triggers their mind better in
grasping new information. Although by having such activities will appeal to
other modalities but having them going through the experience is the key point
for them to relate to their real experience and retain the information.
From
the study, it has been found that Asian learners are highly visual especially
Koreans and Japanese students as the most non-auditory. The result of the study
also appears to support past research in some ways:
- ESL
learners usually differ significantly in many ways from English native
speakers in terms of perceptual learning styles.
- ESL
learners from different language (i.e: educational and cultural)
environment occasionally differ significantly from anyone else in their
learning style preferences.
- Other
factors such as gender, amount of time spent in the United States, major
field, and level of education, signifies that ESL learners differ
significantly in correlation to various learning style preferences.
- Some
modifications and extensions of learning styles may occur towards ESL
learners whose adapt to the U.S academic environment.
In determining ESL learners’
perceptual learning styles, there are a few methods that have been widely used
by researchers. A 13-item set of questionnaire designed for teachers and
students had been developed by Brindley (1984). Students’ version of
questionnaire is used to gather data on six preferably learning styles: visual,
auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile, individual or group learning. In a meanwhile,
teachers’ version of questionnaire has almost similar question but focusing on
teachers’ awareness of those preferences.
A second method which is a self-reporting
questionnaire developed by Joy Reid (1987) consists of arranged sets of 5
statements reflecting on each six learning styles which will be measured:
visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile, group and individual learning. In the
early stage of the questionnaire development, split-half method was used to
assess the consistency and reliability of the test. Correlation analysis of the
original 60 sets of statements determined which five statements for each
learning style should be used.
Since then, these two
questionnaires were often used as the method to determine ESL learning styles.
Next section will highlight past research that had been using these methods in
finding out ESL learning styles with respect to other factors such demographic
and physiological concerns.
2.4
Empirical Studies on Perceptual Learning Styles
2.4.1 Learning Style
Preference of ESL learners in Indian context.
Karthigeyan
& Nirmala (2013) conducted a study on preferred learning styles of English
learners on 582 higher secondary school students located in Tamilnadu, India.
The research looked into the most dominant learning style preferred by English
language learners in high school and also the significant difference of
preferred learning style in concern of demographic factors such as gender,
cultures, nature school boards and class in which they are learning. The
researchers used a Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ)
which was developed by Joy Reid. From the method used, it was found out that
visual learning style was the most dominant learning style (193) followed by
auditory (135), group (104) and individual (87) learning. The least preferred
learning style was kinaesthetic learning (63). Other than that, the researcher
also found that there is no relationship between learners’ learning styles with
respect to their cultures, board of school and gender. The findings correlate
with study conducted by Reid (1987) where Asian students especially Korean were
often highly visual learners. Further investigation into teachers’ awareness of
these preferences needs to be conducted.
2.4.2 Learning Style
Preference of ESL learners in Turkish context.
Bada & Okan (2000) had carried
out a study to examine students’ views on their learning styles in learning
English language. The study involved 230 students and 23 instructors in
education faculty in a university. A set of questionnaire consisted of 13-item
adapted from Brindley (1984) was used to gather the data from teachers and
learners. From the study, it was noted that these students preferred to learn
using a combination of auditory and tactile learning that is by listening and
taking notes (75.7%). The least preferred way of learning is to copy from the
board (32.2%). Interestingly, the most ideal media by students was the
television and video (83.9%) which indicated that learners wanted to have more
instructive television programmes rather than the traditional use of
blackboards and voice recorders and teachers were aware of these preferences.
Based on the study, effective language teaching and learning may be achieved if
teachers are attentive to students’ preferences. However, if would be much
better if students’ performance in examinations and it relationship with
learners’ learning styles were taken into account.
2.4.3 Learning Style
Preference of ESL learners in Iranian context
Zokaee, Zaferanieh and Naseri
(2012) had performed a study to examine the relationship between choice of
vocabulary learning strategies and students’ perceptual learning modalities. The
study involved 54 ESL learners majoring in English literature and a TOEFL test
was administered to ensure same level of proficiency among the respondents.
After that, Schmitt’s (1997) “taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies” test
was conducted and followed by Perceptual Learning Style Preference
Questionnaire (PLSPQ). In the study, it was found that there is a significant
relationship between learning styles and vocabulary learning strategy among the
students and the most preferred is visual learning. It was followed by
kinaesthetic and auditory styles. The least preferred learning style is group
learning. This findings support Reid (1987) where learners from different
language backgrounds prefer different learning styles. In the study conducted
by Zokaee, Zaferanieh and Naseri (2012), it was found that gender difference
plays does not have important role in learning styles chosen by the students.
In another research conducted by
Gilakjani (2012) towards 100 EFL university learners which utilised Perceptual
Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ), half of the participants chose
visual learning style as the most preferred auditory (35%) learners and
kinaesthetic (15%) as the least preferred learning style. Another remarkable
fact was that those visual learners had the highest academic performance but
there was no confirmation presented on the teaching style of such preference
whether the teachers accommodate to visual learners in the classrooms.
2.4.4 Learning Style
Preference of EFL learners in Bangladeshi context
Md. Jahurul (2011) performed a
study intended to find out the preferred language learning styles among
Bangladeshi EFL learners in universities with involvement of 256 learners and
16 instructors. The study adapted survey method of 13-item questionnaire by
Brindley (1984) and Riazi and Riasati (2007). From the findings, the researcher
found that the majority of the learners (66.8%) prefer to learn in pairs or
groups while most of the teachers (75%) are not aware of this major preference.
Other than that, it was obvious to note that learners prefer not to remain
passive in classrooms as most of them responded to “Listening and taking notes”
(77.34%) as well as “Reading and taking notes” (70.31%). Another interesting
fact to be pointed out was the awareness of teachers towards students’ media
preference where both teachers (75%) and students (85.94%) prefer language
learning from visual aids such as television, video or films. This correlates
with a study done by Bada & Okan (2000) where most students prefer
television programmes rather than the traditional teaching methods.
2.5 Learning Styles and
Factors
Learning styles can be determined
in a lot of ways and using several learning styles models which have been
developed by experienced academicians. A lot of research have been conducted to
find the relationship between the learning styles and learners’ performance
however, there is no clear evidence proving on using one learning style gives
out the best performance in getting a job done because it is more of a
preference rather than a technique. However, as being highlighted by most
research, learners with different
cultural backgrounds tend to have different learning styles (Reid, 1984:
Zokaee, Zaferanieh & Naseri, 2012: Karthigeyan & Nirmala, 2013). This
is consistent with a the findings obtained by Rosniah Mustaffa (2005) as cited
in Vaseghi, Ramezani & Gholami (2012), that
kinaesthetic, tactile and group learning were perceived as the most preferred
learning style among ESL learners of Bachelor of Arts in Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia for two semesters. In addition, studies conducted by Jones (1997) and
Chu et al. (1997) as cited in Vaseghi, Ramezani & Gholami (2012), onto 81 learners in Chinese
university and 318 Singaporean learners agreed that kinaesthethic and tactile
learning styles were most preferable. These studies proved that learners with
Asian cultures preferred physical movement in learning process rather than
seeing or hearing lectures. In contrast, a study conducted by Tabanlioglu (2003) onto
pre-intermediate students studying English for Academic Purposes (EAP) at the
University of Bahçeşehir discovered that students’ predominant learning
preferences were auditory and individual learning. Nevertheless, according to Joy and Kolb (2009), cultural influence was
found as marginally significant in relation to learning style preferences. The
study which used Kolb Experiential Learning Theory showed that learners of
different cultures have different preference for abstract conceptualization
over concrete experience in retaining new experience while learning.
However, there are several factors
that can affect learners’ learning styles may derive from level of education,
cultures and environment from which learners live as indicated by Reid (1987),
ESL learners with more than three years exposure to English language
environment prefer auditory style compare to those ESL learners with shorter
periods of exposure to English language environment. Clearly, amount of time in
which learners are exposed to English language environment had a significant
effect towards preferably learning styles.
Besides, learning preference also
differs as people grow older. According to a study conducted by Chen (2009) in
Taiwan, learners in different grades
prefer different learning styles; learners in higher grades prefer group
and auditory learning styles while learners in lower grades prefer group and
kinaesthetic learning styles. This raises the question that had been pointed
out by Reid (1987), do students become more auditory as they adapt to academic
learning environment?
Another important aspect which
needs to be highlighted is the effect of
learning styles towards learners’ achievement. Over the years there have
been a lot of research done to investigate the relationship between learning
styles and academic performance however; there is still no clear evidence of
using a specific learning style to improve academic achievement as there are
many factors that will contribute to learners’ performance. It is interesting
to note that a study conducted by Tabatabaei &
Mashayekhi (2012), found out that there is a significant different between high
achievers and low achievers learning styles. Low achievers preferred to learn
in pairs or groups while high achievers are more independent learners. This
finding interestingly raises a question of the reason why low achievers prefer
to work in groups because they lack of self-confidence to work individually.
Nonetheless, this is in contrast with a study performed by Renou (n.d) towards
first semester learners in a French university as she found out there was no
relationship established between predominant learning style and students’
academic performance. Further studies were conducted in investigating the
relationship between perceptual learning styles and its effect on academic
performance stated that there is no significant correlation between learning
preference and grades (Castro & Peck, 2005: Tight, 2007) as cited in Renou,
(n.d).
There are also many researchers
that have been carried out throughout the years to find out the relationship between gender difference and
preferred learning styles. As stated by Dobson (2009), there was a
considerable association between learning styles and gender difference. Even
though the study he conducted indicated that both male and female learners
predominant learning style was visual and the least preferred learning style
was kinaesthetic, small differences was observed in the second most preferred
learning styles where 27% female learners accounted for aural learning versus
17% male learners whereby 29% male learners preferred read/write learning style
versus 23% female learners.
2.6
Benefits and Implication of Recognising Learning Style
Even though there has not been a
concrete evidence to relate learning style preference and its effect towards
students’ achievement, it is equally important for the instructors to not take
this thing for granted. This is because as according to Felder (1996), if
teachers use least preferred way of teaching in class, learners’ motivation
will decrease and interfere with the students’ concentration in class. Besides,
there are studies shown these mismatch often happened and led to bad outcomes
on students’ performance as well as attitudes (Jones, 1997: Littlewood, 1996),
as cited in Gilakjani, (2012). Wang (2012) had performed a study to investigate
the effect of visual learning style towards low achievers students in Science
subject and it was found out that these students do better with the modified
teaching style adapted by the teacher. Not only that, the attitudes and
motivation shown for the subject had also improved significantly. Hence, it is
rational to highlight that learning environment that caters to students’
individual differences have to be made available in order to establish an
effective learning condition (Yamauchi, 2008).
2.7
Conclusion
The
chapter has explained most used learning styles and also presented the
theoretical framework that will be used in the proposed study. Other than that,
it has also discussed on the previous research revolving around the perceptual
learning styles that has been done across the world. Although these studies
were able to get beneficial insights regarding the perceptual learning styles
among language learners across the globe, the lack of research on Malaysian
language learners and their perceptual learning styles have not yet been
discovered. The next chapter will explain the methodology that will be used in
the proposed study.
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